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Cyberliteracy
Cyberliteracy: Navigating 'the Internet With Awareness is a critical work by Laura J. Gurak that argues for the development of what Gurak calls "cyberliteracy", or the ability to critically read and examine the Internet and online texts. Gurak discusses several concepts and issues pertaining to the Internet and how it has changed the way in which we communicate. In the end, Gurak suggests that the Internet, due to its unique characteristics, must be approached in a different manner than other forms of communication. Cyberliteracy Gurak champions the "efficiency of the Internet" and lauds its ability to allow us to connect with others quickly and easily; however, she also acknowledges that the expectations of speed and instantaneous connection cause us to become frustrated when things do not work properly and shape our view of the world and the people in it, even acting as surrogate existences (p. 10). Gurak contends that understanding how both how to use technology and how to live with it is important and proposes a "critical literacy" to facilitate more sophisticated analysis and understanding of the medium (p. 11). Gurak builds upon Walter Ong's suggestion of "secondary orality", or the combination of written and spoken language that acts as a third form of communication, to contend that the Intenet not only facilitates this form of communication but does so in "ways that change how we read, speak, think, and interact with others" and requires a new form of literacy (p. 14). Much of our understanding of publishing and reading come from older print traditions and effectively shape how we understand the world and absorb meaning, and communication is often directly related to existing power structures (Hardt and Storey elaborate upon this concept further). Literacy, Gurak claims, must be concerned with exploring not only who "owns information" but also who "controls it"; this extends into cyberspace and adds questions of access into the mix (p. 22). Gurak contends that the characteristics of the Internet do not develop in a vacuum and challenges the notion of technological determinism in its development. The Internet is developed both by individuals and by corporations who have vested interests in how it is developed, and this in turn could potentially limit the power of alternative views. Yet, Gurak argues that cyberliteracy must move beyond commercial concerns and toward the Internet as a communication technology, as well as what the technologies should become. Speed, Reach, Anonymity, Interactivity Gurak identifies the so-called "action terms" of Internet communication as speed, reach, anonymity, and interactivity (p. 29). These terms, both taken together and separately, explain how online communication functions. *Speed - The Internet by its nature is a speedy medium, and encourages rapid exchange of messages and communication; it also changes our expectations of other forms of communication. Gurak suggests that this desire for speed influences the way we type and communicate because we write as we speak online and lack the formal structure of a letter or a report; the Interne tis also a casual place due to the lack of face-to-face connection. *Reach - Reach refers to how far a message on the Internet reaches, as well as how many people see it and spread it; by its nature the Internet ignores political and geographical borders and makes it difficult to retract an online message. The reach of the Internet also allows like-minded individuals to form communities and shared spaces for both positive and negative ends. *Anonymity - The Internet allows for users to be anonymous and to eschew their physical characteristics, appearance, gender, and the like. The creation of online identities can be powerful because individuals still believe that they are communicating with an actual person and create a sense of trust and connection that may potentially be unwarranted. Gurak includes Sherry Turkle's analysis that Internet users essentially create new selves and new identities through their use of the Internet. Anonymity also raises questions about who creates and owns content online, and the open nature of the Internet fosters an environment in which information can be shared and circulated but often without identifying ownership information. *Interactivity - The Internet allows users to talk back to content creators and in doing so constitute a negotiated meaning, as well as allow access to the "inner circle" of cultural creators and social figures. This layer of immediate feedback and communication leads many to create websites, and provides powerful avenues for shopping and commercial endeavors.However, users often may give up personal information unknowingly when using the Internet, leading to privacy concerns. Techno-Rage: Machines, Anger, and Censorship Gurak contends that the speed at which the Internet operates encourages certain expectations about how communication should operate and keeps us in a "pumped up state" not unlike a caffeine rush; this in turn leads to phenonmena such as flaming and personal attacks (p. 49-51). Flaming in particular happens due to the lack of social cues as well as the historically hacker-oriented male Internet culture; Gurak contends that a cyberliterate approach must ask questions about why these forms of communication occur in this particular space. Moreover, the Internet is particularly attractive for extreme philosophies and hate groups. Web sites like the Nuremberg Files, an anti-abortion page that encouraged violence against practitioners, use the characteristics of the Internet to advance extreme and emotionally-charged positions and often are not protected by the First Amendment; however, those forms of online flaming that do not incite or encourage violence more than likely are. These extremist pages can often be misleading and sophisticated, appearing to be informational rather than ideological; Gurak contends that cyberliteracy must also take a moral dimension, judging whether the content on a page is morally valid or right and remembering that even informational sites are often written from a particular perspective. While some organizations, such as the Anti-Defamation League, offer filters designed to filter out offensive and hateful content, Gurak argues that these limit the development of cyberliteracy by not exposing users to the tactics and content they should be critical of and also potentially having the side effect of limiting user exposure to viewpoints outside a prescribed worldview. Gurak reiterates her position that a cyberliteracy approach requires the rejection of a technological determinism viewpoint and a recognition that human beings are in charge of the Internet and the communication that takes place there, arguing for users to be open-minded yet critical and support legislation aimed at making the Internet more open and tolerant. Genders and Virtualities Gurak contends that cyberliteracy must also take into account the gendered qualities of the online space and how the genders interact with the Internet as well as how to make the experience more open and welcoming to both genders. Rather than simply being divorced from real-world concerns, Gurak argues that the Internet and associated technologies carry with them "the marks of their makers and the ethos of the culture in which they arise" (p. 65). Gurak provides several historical examples of how communicative media have been affected by the often sexist contexts from which they derive. The contemporary Internet, while perhaps less influenced by these conditions and facilitating greater levels of female access, "does not ensure equal access or a lack of gender bias"; Janet Gardner suggests that women must not only have access to the Internet, but also time and the ability to connect with it on the basis of whether it mirrors real life (p. 71). Gurak contends that the historically male-dominated computer technology world gave rise to a set of "gendered interactions" as use of the Internet became widespread, particularly in terms of flaming and the language used (p. 72). Susan Herring, a linguist, showed in one study that men tended to use "assertive and imperative" language and were more likely to participate in discussion than women, who used "attenuated and meek" language; Gurak suggests that the early hacker culture of the Internet and the fact that early Internet users were more likely to be male contributes to this and also contributes to the use of misogynistic or anti-female language online, as these traditions are still seen today (p. 73-74). Moreover, most Web sites and technology aimed at girls and women emphasized more traditional gender roles and the sexual appeal of the female form. Even though users can potentially "swap" their gender online or communicate anonymously, these can still lead to complications, such as when a man posed as a lonely female widower to lure in women for cybersex (p. 80). Gurak contends that a cyberliterate approach must take into account not only that the Internet effectively amplifies many real life issues, but also work toward a less gendered perspective and create an Internet that is more open and accessible to female users. Humor, Hoaxes, and Legends in Cyberspace Gurak points out that the Internet is rife with hype and hoaxes, often perpetuated by those who use "technical-sounding language" and "credibility by association" to propagate false virus warnings, political rumors, and other untrue information (p. 84). Gurak offers numerous tactics to recognize fake emails and information, as well as what makes chain letters propagate so quickly. Chain letters generally have a "hook" to get people interested or play upon their emotions, a "threat" suggesting some negative outcome, and a "request" to encourage people to interact with or forward the message to others (p. 88-90). A cyberliterate approach must recognize these characteristics while also having some knowledge of how computers work to combat against erroneous information. Gurak also suggests a multi-facted approach to evaluate Web sites and the information they contain (p. 94-96): *Authorship - Anonymous Web sites should be avoided for research or informational purposes, and those using Web sites for academic purposes should make an effort to dig deeper to find the source of the information. *Currentness - Out of date Web sites by their nature may contain information that is no longer legitimate (though there are instances in which information does not change much, if at all) and in general more recently-updated Web sites are more credible. *Purpose - A literate approach to online content must also take into account the "intended audience" of the Web site as well as the purpose of the site - for example, a Web site from a political organization may be aimed at espousing the virtues of a particular candidate or course of action rather than providing objective information. *URL - Certain Web addresses may be more credible or valuable than others, though there is no guarantee - .com sites could either be commercial sites trying to sell you products or sources of legitimate information. *Links - The Web site should have relevant, working links; this signifies maintenance and legitimacy. *Accuracy - The Web site should have sourced information and citations if appropriate, and should also be objective or well-balanced sources of information. *Design - The best-designed Web sites may not always be the most credible or informative. Gurak contends that the Internet has shaped the way other forms of media operate, with "mainstream" forms of media reshaping their processes to adapt to and utilize the Internet; Gurak argues that these organizations must also practice cyberliteracy (p. 106). Gurak contends that users should "think before they post" and also teach other new Internet users what to look for. Privacy and Copyright in Digital Space Gurak suggests that another aspect of cyberliteracy pertains to the issues of privacy and copyright and how differing laws in different countries make the issue more complex. Gurak points out that the Internet raises questions about privacy protection laws because most were based on older technologies, such as telephone systems; the Internet has a much wider reach and greater speed than those older technologies. This is compounded by the fact that people are generally concerned about online privacy but do not tend to know much about how to ensure their own privacy and safety online. The Internet often lulls people into a false sense of anonymity though a great deal of information is often gathered about them. E-commerce sites use cookies and other methods to obtain information used to connect consumers with products; however, there is no limit to how corporations can use the information they obtain. While companies maintain that this is beneficial because it can be used to provide customers with better service, they may also freely sell that information to advertisers and other interested parties. Cyberliteracy demands an understanding of what personal data can be gathered online and when. Copyright is a particularly interesting discussion in the online sphere, because of its ability to ignore and transcend boundaries. Catherine Kirkman and other lawyers contend that further technological developments will likely result in greater copyright protection rather than lesser amounts; moreover, as communication companies continue to merge into bigger corporations there will likely be lesser amounts of "public domain material" for Internet users to utilize, thereby limiting users' "ability to use the vast amount of information that is available in public spaces" (p. 123-124). While fair use exemptions exist, legal interpretations of what constitutes fair use are increasingly strict and licensing statements make it appear as though all forms of content reproduction are illegal. Gurak points out that cyberliteracy must also take into account the economic, social, and political factors that influence the development of cyberspace; because a ''laissez-faire, ''open-market model is the status quo it is more likely that corporate interests will shape the Internet. Shopping at the E-Mall Gurak spends relatively little time discussing e-commerce but makes some interesting statements about how e-commerce pertains to cyberliteracy. She argues that e-commerce "reduces our already shrinking public spaces because it takes something that was public ... and creates an almost entirely commercial model" (p. 135). Moreover, as alluded to earlier, the information gathered by e-commerce sites about consumers may also lead to a "black market" in the exchange of personal information (p. 138). Gurak suggests some alternatives to the commercialization of the Internet, such as the adoption of Internet 2 technologies to provide a second, more publicly-oriented Internet. Think Globally, Eat Locally Gurak concludes her book by taking a more critical approach to the Internet. While she recognizes the importance of the Internet as a tool for interaction and community, she also believes that it is important to remember that "we are still material beings with physical needs and desires, and that online technologies can never change this fact" (p. 147). Cyberliteracy, in Gurak's view, must also take into account "when to use technologies and when to interact with the physical world" (p. 147). Gurak points out that while users often talk about "going online", users do not actually go anywhere, and physical needs and concerns must always trump online concerns (p. 148-149). While Gurak champions the notion of vitual communities as a "useful way to blend the virtual with the physical", she points out that these connections are often used when a physical connection would be easier and more beneficial (p. 150-151). Moreover, the ability of online communications to allow users to opt out of unwanted interactions or tense situations makes it difficult to cope with similar situations in the real world. Gurak also suggests that Internet use may have deleterious effects on the health of users - as she puts it, "the human body was meant to move about, breathe deeply, and stare off into the distance" (p. 152). Not only does the Internet create a situation in which users remain mostly sedentary, it also encourages people to stay sedentary. A cyberliterate perspective, in Gurak's view, includes time to relax the body and create space between the user and the computer to stave off addiction and negative health effects (p. 152-153). Gurak also contends that the Internet cannot fully replace face-to-face communication, and cautions against the trend of education to utilize distance education and increasingly commodify and commercialize learning. She concludes by stating that a balance must be maintained to maximize the potential benefits of the Internet while minimizing the problems, and awareness of the consequences and ways in which the Internet changes our lives is important to being literate and successful in an online world. Category:Books